RACIAL EQUITY BRIEF

THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT GAP

APRIL 2026

AUTHORED BY: Bianca Onwukwe, Fellow, and Sarina Phu, Associate Director of Research

The District of Columbia (DC) has shown significant academic recovery and progress in recent years. DC ranked first among states in Math and Reading recovery between 2022-2024, with students gaining half a grade’s level in Math and a quarter of a grade level in Reading, on average.[1] However, achievement gaps persist, especially between students from differing socioeconomic and racial backgrounds.

Academic performance strongly influences students’ future educational attainment, employment opportunities, earnings, which translates to their wellbeing and overall contribution to society. Therefore, addressing these disparities early in students’ development is essential to improving long term outcomes.

HOW WE GOT HERE

Historically, racial segregation in the United States has driven racial inequities in the public school systems.[2] DC is no exception, with policies such as discriminatory lending by white owned, destructive “urban renewal” policies, racially restrictive covenants, and redlining driving racial segregation in housing.[3] The legacy of these racist housing and urban development policies are the foundation for school district maps today.[4] As a result, schools in the District—and education policy as a whole—are shaped by this history of racist policymaking and existing racial inequities.

In DC, the public school system is structured around two main sectors: District of Columbia Public Schools (DCPS) and DC Public Charter Schools (DCPCS). DCPS is part of the traditional public school system, while charter schools operate independently under a charter granted by the DC Public Charter School Board (PCSB). Both sectors offer a variety of school types and grade configurations, with families having the option to choose schools within their neighborhood or apply to schools outside their assigned area.  This brief focuses on the achievement gap in DCPS.

Over the past two decades, DC has undergone pervasive gentrification, fundamentally restructuring the city’s demographic profile, housing market, and public institutions. According to US Census estimates, DC’s Black population has declined from about 60% in 2000 to 44% in 2024.[5],[6] This shift has been primarily driven by an influx of higher income and predominantly white residents, which has increased housing costs, and subsequently displaced Black and Latine communities.[7] Research finds that between 2000 and 2013, DC experienced one of the nation’s highest rates of gentrification, concentrated in about 40% of its lower income neighborhoods.[8]

This gentrification has had overwhelming effects on DCPS. As housing prices have increased, many low income families, mainly families of color, have been pushed out of their neighborhoods.[9] This affected DCPS which serves mainly students of color, with 56% of students identifying as Black and 22% as Latine. These effects have translated to vast differences in the demographic profile, resources, and student outcomes between schools serving high income, mostly white neighborhoods and those serving low income communities of color. [10]

This is also pronounced in the most recent data from the Office of State Superintendent of Education (OSSE) that shows that only 34% of students met or exceeded expectations in English Language Arts (ELA), and only 23% met or exceeded grade level expectations in Math. The data shows virtually no change between 2023 and 2024.[11] These gaps are exacerbated for students with disabilities, homeless students, and economically disadvantaged students, as their academic outcomes and graduation rates fall well below the district’s average.[12]

Additionally, OSSE 2024 data shows that only 24% and 12% of Black students met or exceeded expectations in ELA and Math, respectively. While 82% and 74% of white students met or exceeded expectations in ELA and Math, respectively.[13] The persistent achievement gap between Black and white students, and between students from families with low incomes and their counterparts, reflect the broader inequities fueled by gentrification. As high income families move into the city, they often cluster in neighborhoods with well-resourced and thus higher performing schools, further concentrating these resources. Gentrification has not only changed the demographic profile of DC, but it has also exacerbated educational disparities, affecting Black students and students of color.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP

A range of interrelated factors contribute to the racial disparities in academic outcomes in DCPS. Some key factors include school disciplinary practices, variation in school funding, chronic absenteeism, teacher quality, and access to advanced coursework such as Advanced Placement (AP) classes and dual enrollment programs. These factors play a significant role in shaping students’ educational experiences and outcomes, often compounding existing inequities such as residential segregation, across demographic groups.

School Discipline and the School-to-Prison Pipeline

The school-to-prison pipeline is the pushout of students, particularly Black, Latine, and Indigenous youth, from the classrooms and into the criminal legal system using school disciplinary practices (such as suspensions, expulsions, and school-based arrests).[14] Research shows that when schools use punitive disciplinary policies such as suspension and expulsions to remove students from class, it increases the likelihood of students encountering the criminal legal system outside of school.[15] National data shows that Black students are two times more likely to be suspended than white students and are more often referred to law enforcement for school-based incidents.[16],[17]

These national patterns are even more intense in DC. For example, from 2013-2023, the percentage of arrests at school that involved Black children has remained above 90%.[18] This is indicative of the consistent and pervasive overcriminalization of Black students relative to white students. Despite ongoing efforts to reform zero tolerance policies and redefine the role of school resource officers (SROs), Black students in DCPS are still more likely to be impacted by exclusionary discipline and criminalization.[19]

Furthermore, a qualitative study on the lived experiences of Black District students with disabilities, who have been involved with the juvenile legal system, highlights harmful themes in students’ statements such as “I wish someone would have seen me,” and “Every discipline I got I deserved.”[20] These themes underscore that harsh school disciplinary policies encourage the adultification of young students, especially Black students. These students are denied the opportunity to make mistakes and grow from them, as a young person. This data reflects systemic racial inequities in school disciplinary practices, as the inconsistent enforcement and implicit bias in discipline criminalizes typical student behavior for minor behavioral infractions.[21]

School Funding

DCPS school budgets are calculated on a per-student basis, and in many parts of the city, schools are facing significant changes in enrollment.[22] These shifts in student enrollment at traditional public schools significantly impacts a public school’s budget, resulting in fewer classroom teachers and resources for enrolled students. According to a study conducted by the DC Fiscal Policy Institute, “more than half of DC’s traditional public schools were on track to start the year with fiscal year (FY) 2023 budgets that were lower than their FY 2022 budgets,” indicating the harmful effects of policy changes within DC’s public education sector.[23]

Specifically, this is largely due to the expiration of significant federal pandemic relief funds, which had temporarily boosted school budgets in previous years. Schools in Ward 7 and Ward 8, that disproportionately serves Black and Latine students from families with  lower incomes, were most affected by these resource constraints.

The financial strain on DCPS is further compounded by declining enrollment, which directly impacts school funding due to the city’s per-pupil funding formula. According to the Office of the Deputy Mayor for Education (DME), DCPS will lose 1,000 students next year, 70% of them from schools in Ward 7 and Ward 8 (where about 80% of the population is Black).[24],[25] Black youth attending these schools in Ward 7 and Ward 8 that have inadequate school funding, also tend to face the greatest barriers to academic achievement in the District. This is evident in OSSE’s 2023-2024 Statewide Assessment Results, in which only 17% of students in Ward 8 met or exceeded expectations in ELA and 9% met or exceeded expectations in Math, and the results are only slightly higher in Ward 7.[26] However, these test results were twice as high or more in almost every other part of the city. These shifts in school funding and student enrollment compound each other, negatively impacting academic performance, particularly for Black students with lower incomes.

Advanced Placement (AP) and Dual Enrollment

Advanced Placement (AP) courses and Dual Enrollment (DE) programs are two of the most widely recognized opportunities for high school students to engage in college-level coursework. These programs allow students to challenge themselves academically, boost their grade point averages, and potentially earn college credits before graduating high school.[27]

The Community College Research Center (CCRC) reports racial disparities in AP participation rates in DCPS, as 22% of Black students participated in AP courses compared to 57% of white students in school year 2021-22.[28] This gap reflects the barriers faced by Black students in DC, as students are either discouraged to enroll in AP courses or isolated in classes where they are among few students of color.

Additionally, recent data from CCRC also highlights the scale and impact of DE programs, as nearly 2.5 million high school students participate in DE nationwide, with 1.8 million taking courses at community colleges, making up 21% of the total community college student population.[29] Research consistently shows that students who participate in DE are more likely to complete high school, enroll in postsecondary education, and ultimately earn a college degree compared to students who do not participate in DE. Despite these benefits, participation in AP and DE programs is not equitable, as Black students in DCPS are less likely to enroll in DE courses, compared to white students. These disparities in access to advanced coursework underscore persistent barriers that limit college readiness for many students, particularly those from marginalized communities.

Chronic Absenteeism

Chronic absenteeism which reflects students missing more than 10% of a school year, rose from 30% of students in 2019 to 48% in 2023 in DC, contributing to the loss of instructional time, and subsequently reduced academic progress.[30] Research confirms that absenteeism directly reduces achievement, as missing 10 class periods in middle or high school reduces math or ELA test scores by approximately 3% to 4% of a standard deviation. Additionally, 10 absences in 9th grade decreases the probability of on-time high school graduation and ever enrolling in college by about two percentage points, which is alarming because Black and Latine students are more likely to miss (22.5) classes than their white and Asian counterparts (that miss 7 classes per year on average).[31][MR2][MR3]

Several factors have contributed to the increase in chronic absenteeism in DCPS, including COVID-19, safety concerns, transportation issues, disengagement from school culture and classroom learning, etc. This has been a growing concern for DCPS over the years, as an investigation in 2017 by WAMU and NPR found that Ballou High School graduated 164 students when only 57 students were on track to graduate. They found that there were high rates of unexcused absences, where one in five students missed more than 90 days of school.[32] An interview revealed that some students might be juggling school, work, and other responsibilities, and felt school attendance was unnecessary. A student admitted to ignoring calls regarding her absences, until they threatened to send her to court for truancy.

Student disengagement is one of the main drivers of absenteeism, even at the national level, as a survey of 90% public school students and 10% charter and private school students (grades 3 through 12) finds that only 44% of 10th graders say most of the time they learn a lot in school, 29% say they get to learn things they are interested in, 33% say they get to develop their own ideas,  and 39% say most of the time they feel they belong at school.[33] Student disengagement, influenced by home, school, and community, negatively impacts attendance and subsequently, academic performance, especially as it pertains to Black and Latine students.[34] John Ogbu’s Cultural-Ecological theory explains that the broader societal treatment of people of color is also mirrored in their treatment in education. This is reflected in educational policies and practices that disproportionately affect Black and Latine students, their classroom interactions with teachers, and the rewards (or lack thereof), as a result of their school performance.[35]

Systemic issues further compound the drivers of chronic absenteeism, especially for low income students, and students of color. These factors collectively contribute to the loss of instructional time and hinder academic progress, expanding the racial achievement gap.

Teacher Quality and Experience

Teacher quality and experience are essential to closing achievement gaps in DC. According to the Office of the State Superintendent of Education’s (OSSE) 2023-24 Educator Workforce Report, 94% of DC. teachers were rated “effective” or higher, however, the distribution of experienced and in-field teachers remains uneven, as economically disadvantaged students are less likely to be taught by experienced educators.[36] This uneven distribution is also interlinked with school location and its demographics, as schools in Ward 7 and Ward 8 that serve majority low income and Black student groups, are more likely to have higher rates of novice teachers and teacher turnover.

These same schools also face significant shortages in student support services, as the current student-to-counselor ratio in DCPS is 330 to 1, which exceeds the American School Counselor Association’s recommended maximum of 250 to 1.[37] This is also more pronounced in Ward 7 and Ward 8, with students having less access to counseling and more exposure to school policing.

The combination of fewer experienced teachers, limited counseling and mental health supports, and heightened exposure to school policing creates a learning environment where Black and low income students are systematically denied the resources and opportunities available to their counterparts in high income, and predominantly white neighborhoods. These racial inequities undermine efforts to close achievement gaps.

POLICY CONSIDERATIONS

Strategic investments in teacher training, program expansion for DE and AP courses, improvement in school disciplinary practices and school funding, and reduction in chronic absenteeism, are critical to decreasing the achievement gap.[38] Other policy interventions could be helpful for consideration:

Investing in teacher training and retention of high quality teachers is foundational for improving student outcomes across grades and subjects. Professional development should focus on culturally responsive pedagogy, differentiated instruction, and strategies for engaging Black students and students of color.[39],[40],[41]

Expanding access to DE programs and AP courses is critical for broadening college readiness opportunities. Increasing the availability of these programs, especially in schools serving Black students and students of color, can help close participation gaps. This also includes providing academic support and guidance to help students succeed in these challenging environments.[42]

School disciplinary reform, such as the adoption of restorative practices, will decrease exclusionary measures and address root causes of misbehavior, while promoting positive relationships, student engagement, and positive academic outcomes.[43]

Strategic increases in school funding are essential to ensure that resources are distributed equitably across DCPS, reflecting each school’s baseline resources and the needs of the majority of students served. Adequate and equitable funding enables schools to reduce class sizes, update instructional materials, and hire additional staff—such as counselors and mental health support staff, who are crucial for supporting student success.[44]

The reduction of chronic absenteeism is another key lever for closing the achievement gap, so consistency in school attendance should involve targeted interventions, such as family outreach, mentoring, evaluating school culture, and improving students’ sense of belonging.[45] It is crucial for individual schools to identify and address their unique barriers to attendance, as District-level data may not capture localized challenges such as transportation issues, family circumstances, and other community-specific needs.[46] Schools like H.D. Woodson High School combat this by improving and centering students’ voice and choice through the implementation of XQ’s Design Principles.[47],[48]

Based on a history of racial segregation, redlining, racial covenants, and race-neutral funding policies, effective policymaking must consider the District’s existing racial inequities to best address the racial academic achievement gap. Especially important are addressing the factors contributing to the school-to-prison pipeline, racial inequities in school funding, availability of Advanced Placement and dual enrollment offerings, student absenteeism, and teacher experience. In doing so, the District can prioritize and support Black students, Latine students, Indigenous students, and students of color and remedy the racial achievement gap.

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[1] Sam Stockwell. “District of Columbia.” Education Recovery Scorecard, February 11, 2025.

[2] Tomas Monarrez and Carina Chien. Dividing Lines: Racially Unequal School Boundaries in US Public School Systems. Urban Institute, 2021.

[3] Peace Gwam and Mychal Cohen. Combating the Legacy of Segregation in the Nation’s Capital. Urban Institute, 2021.

[4] Tomas Monarrez and Carina Chien. Dividing Lines: Racially Unequal School Boundaries in US Public School Systems. Urban Institute, 2021.

[5] Joy Phillips and Robert Beasley. “District of Columbia State Data Center Quarterly Report.” District of Columbia State Data Center, 2006.

[6] United States Census Bureau. “Quick Facts DC,” Accessed April 2026.

[7] Although the data cited throughout this REIA uses the term "Hispanic," CORE is using the term "Latine." Sources often use the term “Hispanic” because they rely on Census or other federal data which use the term “Hispanic” to collect data on people with ethnicities related to Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America and Spain. However, most “Hispanics” in the United States and the District are people with ethnicities from Latin America (also known as Latine)—and not Spain. The term “Hispanic” does not fully acknowledge the unique history of oppression and colonialism that Latines have faced in the United States and the District. To recognize this history, CORE uses the term "Latine" instead of "Hispanic." For more on this topic, see Lopez, Mark Hugo, Jens Manuel Krogstad, and Jeffrey S. Passel. “Who Is Hispanic?” Pew Research Center.

[8] Bruce Mitchell, Jad Edlebi, Helen Meier, Jason Richardson, Joseph Dean, and Liang Chen. “Displaced By Design: Fifty Years of Gentrification and Black Cultural Displacement in US Cities,”  NCRC, May 2025.

[9] CORE is citing the original source in this sentence, which has led us to use the term “familiesof color”. When CORE uses terms such as “communities of color” or “families of color” to match the original source, we are referring to Black, Indigenous, Latine, Asian American, Pacific Islander, and Native Hawaiian populations. We match the original source in this situation but also acknowledge that each community of color has a unique history and experience of racism in the United States, and particularly, in the District of Columbia. While it is sometimes more efficient to reference “people of color” in narrative text, policies and actions must respond to the historical trauma each community has faced by naming individual communities.

[10] District of Columbia Public Schools, “DCPS at a Glance: Enrollment,” Accessed June 2025.

[11] District of Columbia Public Schools, “DC Releases 2024 Statewide Assessment Results,” August 22, 2024

[12] DC Action. “Education.” 2023.

[13] Office of the State Superintendent. “2024 Statewide Assessment Results Math and English Language Arts.” 2024.

[14] American Civil Liberties Union. “What Is the School-to-Prison Pipeline?” June 6, 2008.

[15] Johnathan Glenn. “Resilience Matters: Examining the School to Prison Pipeline through the Lens of School Based Problem Behaviors.” Justice Policy Journal Volume 16 (2019).

[16] These national numbers are even more drastic for students with disabilities. Black boys with an IEPs are arrested and referred around four times the overall average. However, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander boys with an IEP are arrested at 5.8 times the overall average and referred at 2.4 times the average. For more, see “Corey Mitchell Ferriss, Joe Yerardi, Susan. “When Schools Call Police on Kids.” Center for Public Integrity, September 8, 2021.”

[17] U.S. Government Accountability Office, “Differences in Student Arrest Rates” July 2024.

[18] Criminal Justice Coordinating Council. “School-Based Arrests in the District of Columbia, 2013-2023” December 2023.

[19] John A D. Marinelli. “‘Education Under Armed Guard’: An Analysis of the School-to-Prison Pipeline in Washington, D.C.” American Criminal Law Review 59 (2022).

[20] Timmesha Butler. “African American Students’ Experiences of the School-to-Prison Pipeline: A Phenomenological Study.” Journal of Cultural Analysis and Social Change, July 31, 2022.

[21] Harold Jordan. “Why School Discipline Reform Still Matters.” American Civil Liberties Union (blog), October 19, 2023.

[22] Chelsea Coffin. “Declining Births and Lower Demand: Charting the Future of Public-School Enrollment in D.C.” D.C. Policy Center, July 13, 2022.

[23] Qubilah Huddleston and Michael Johnson Jr. “New DC Public Schools Budget Model Makes Progress Towards More Transparency and Flexibility but Falls Short on Addressing Structural Funding Inadequacy and Inequity.” DC Fiscal Policy Institute (blog), March 14, 2022.

[24] U.S. Census Bureau. “Census Profile: Ward 7, DC.” Census Reporter, 2024.

[25] U.S. Census Bureau. “Census Profile: Ward 8, DC.” Census Reporter, 2024.

[26] Office of the State Superintendent. “2024 Statewide Assessment Results Math and English Language Arts.” 2024.

[27] U.S. Department of Education. “Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate, and Dual-Enrollment Courses,” National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). August 2019.

[28] John Fink. “Who Has Access to Dual Enrollment and AP Coursework at Your Local Schools?” Community College Research Center, April 14, 2025.

[29] John Fink. “How Many Students Are Taking Dual Enrollment Courses In High School? New National, State, and College-Level Data.” Community College Research Center, August 26, 2024.

[30] Sam Stockwell. “District of Columbia.” Education Recovery Scorecard, February 11, 2025.

[31] Jing Liu, Monica Lee, and Seth Gershenson. (2021). The short- and long-run impacts of secondary school absences. Journal of Public Economics, 199, Article 104425.

[32] Kate McGee. “What Really Happened At The School Where Every Graduate Got Into College.” K-12. NPR, November 28, 2017.

[33] Rebecca Winthrop, Youssef Shoukry, and David Nitkin. The Disengagement Gap: Why Student Engagement Isn’t What Parents Expect. Center for Universal Education at Brookings, 2025.

[34] Chelsea Coffin. “Chart of the Week: Postsecondary Enrollment Is More Likely with a Strong Attendance Record.” D.C. Policy Center, February 21, 2025.

[35] Ogbu, John U, and Herbert D. Simons. “Voluntary and Involuntary Minorities: A Cultural-Ecological Theory of School Performance with Some Implications for Education.” Anthropology & Education Quarterly 29, no. 2 (1998): 155–88.

[36] Office of the State Superintendent of Education. (2024, October). District of Columbia Educator Workforce Report.

[37] DC Action. “Education.” 2023.

[38] Background and data information were collected from the following REIAs: Bill 26-0073, the “Heads Up! Distraction-Free Learning Amendment Act of 2025,” Bill 24-0665, the “Access to Advanced Placement Tests Amendment Act of 2022,” and Bill 24-0570, the “Schools First in Budgeting Amendment Act of 2022.”

[39] Brittany Aronson and Judson Laughter. “The Theory and Practice of Culturally Relevant Education: A Synthesis of Research Across Content Areas.” Review of Educational Research, Vol. 86, No. 1. (2016)

[40] Jenny Muñiz. Culturally Responsive Teaching: A 50-State Survey of Teaching Standards. New America, 2019.

[41] Linda Darling-Hammond and Channa Cook-Harvey. Educating the Whole Child: Improving School Climate to Support Student Success. Learning Policy Institute, 2018.

[42] Kayla Patrick, Allison Socol, and Ivy Morgan. Inequities in Advanced Coursework: What’s Driving Them and What Leaders Can Do. The Education Trust, 2020.

[43] John A D. Marinelli. “‘Education Under Armed Guard’: An Analysis of the School-to-Prison Pipeline in Washington, D.C.” American Criminal Law Review 59 (2022).

[44] Alyssa Noth. Educational Equity Requires an Adequate School Budget. DC Fiscal Policy Institute, 2019.

[45] XQ Institute. “XQ Design Principles for Rethinking High School.” Accessed October 2025.

[46] Michelle Singh. “5 Strategies to Combat Student Disengagement.” Leadership, School & District Management. Education Week, March 12, 2024.

[47] Edward Montalvo. To Tackle Chronic Absenteeism, This DC High School Lets Students Lead. May 20, 2025.

[48] XQ Institute. “XQ Design Principles for Rethinking High School.” Accessed October 2025. ‍